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Table 2 Logistic Regression Odds Ratios (OR) of any help-seeking for women experiencing IPV during pregnancy, by region, adjusted and weighted

From: Help-seeking behaviors among survivors of intimate partner violence during pregnancy in 54 low- and middle-income countries: evidence from Demographic and Health Survey data

Asia and Melanesia

Latin America and Caribbeana

North Africa/ West Asia/Eastern Europe

Sub-Saharan Africa

Totala

aOR

95% CI

p-value

aOR

95% CI

p-value

aOR

95% CI

p-value

aOR

95% CI

p-value

aOR

95% CI

p-value

Women鈥檚 characteristics

Woman鈥檚 age (years)

15-19

20-24

1.04

0.67; 1.61

0.877

1.18

0.68; 2.03

0.556

1.42

0.52; 3.87

0.488

1.25

0.99; 1.58

0.065

1.12

0.92; 1.36

0.253

25-29

0.92

0.59; 1.43

0.709

1.32

0.77; 2.25

0.313

0.55

0.19; 1.57

0.264

1.11

0.87; 1.41

0.387

0.96

0.79; 1.17

0.701

30-34

0.96

0.61; 1.50

0.851

1.39

0.81; 2.38

0.233

0.71

0.24; 2.07

0.530

0.95

0.74; 1.23

0.709

0.88

0.72; 1.07

0.210

35-39

0.80

0.50; 1.28

0.358

1.83

1.05; 3.19

0.034*

0.70

0.23; 2.11

0.524

0.75

0.57; 0.99

0.044*

0.75

0.60; 0.93

0.008*

40-44

0.62

0.39; 1.00

0.049*

1.42

0.77; 2.59

0.259

0.50

0.16; 1.58

0.237

0.66

0.50; 0.88

0.004*

0.60

0.48; 0.75

<0.001**

45-49

0.67

0.41; 1.08

0.100

1.34

0.74; 2.44

0.336

0.38

0.12; 1.21

0.102

0.68

0.50; 0.92

0.012*

0.62

0.49; 0.77

<0.001**

Age at first cohabitation (years)

<15

15-19

1.27

1.06; 1.52

0.010*

1.13

0.94; 1.37

0.196

0.99

0.72; 1.37

0.964

1.12

1.03; 1.21

0.008*

1.41

1.09; 1.83

0.009*

20-24

0.86

0.70; 1.05

0.130

0.57

0.42; 0.79

<0.001**

0.82

0.58; 1.15

0.257

0.99

0.88; 1.11

0.838

1.37

1.03; 1.84

0.032*

25+

1.08

0.84; 1.39

0.545

0.36

0.22; 0.57

<0.001**

1.26

0.79; 2.01

0.329

0.89

0.72; 1.09

0.255

1.72

1.18; 2.50

0.005*

Marital status

Previously married

Currently married

0.16

0.11; 0.23

<0.001**

0.43

0.35; 0.52

<0.001**

0.14

0.09; 0.22

<0.001**

0.39

0.35; 0.44

<0.001**

0.33

0.30; 0.36

<0.001**

Woman鈥檚 education

No education

Primary

1.33

1.00; 1.77

0.050*

1.45

1.09; 1.92

0.011*

1.10

0.51; 2.36

0.812

1.54

1.38; 1.72

<0.001**

1.64

1.45; 1.87

<0.001**

Secondary or higher

1.39

1.09; 1.78

0.008*

1.65

1.20; 2.27

0.002*

1.73

0.88; 3.44

0.114

1.23

1.06; 1.42

0.005*

1.58

1.37; 1.84

<0.001**

Woman is working

No

Yes

1.23

1.06; 1.42

0.007*

1.13

0.94; 1.36

0.204

1.23

0.83; 1.82

0.311

1.49

1.33; 1.66

<0.001**

1.39

1.30; 1.49

<0.001**

Who earns more

About the same

Husband/partner earns more

0.87

0.56; 1.36

0.540

0.81

0.57; 1.15

0.242

3.42

0.77; 15.27

0.107

1.14

0.91; 1.42

0.265

1.30

1.10; 1.54

0.002*

Woman earns more than him

1.83

1.20; 2.80

0.005*

1.11

0.71; 1.74

0.632

5.53

1.15; 26.66

0.033*

1.47

1.10; 1.98

0.010*

1.55

1.24; 1.93

<0.001**

Exposure to mass media (at least once a week)

Reading newspaper or magazine

1.44

1.11; 1.87

0.006*

1.00

0.77; 1.29

0.990

0.69

0.39; 1.23

0.212

1.20

1.02; 1.40

0.028*

1.12

1.01; 1.23

0.030*

Listening to radio

1.58

1.35; 1.85

<0.001**

1.06

0.85; 1.34

0.600

0.99

0.63; 1.57

0.979

1.12

1.01; 1.24

0.038*

1.17

1.09; 1.26

<0.001**

Watching television

1.27

1.02; 1.60

0.035*

1.29

1.00; 1.67

0.054

0.98

0.45; 2.11

0.950

0.86

0.74; 1.00

0.050*

0.87

0.79; 0.95

0.003*

Current pregnancy wanted

Later

Then

1.25

0.65; 2.41

0.501

0.82

0.30; 2.23

0.700

0.17

0.04; 0.75

0.019*

0.74

0.56; 0.99

0.041*

0.80

0.63; 1.02

0.068

Not at all

0.93

0.38; 2.25

0.864

2.37

0.85; 6.63

0.100

0.73

0.06; 8.63

0.804

1.40

0.90; 2.18

0.133

1.09

0.76; 1.56

0.640

Partner/family characteristics

Partner鈥檚 age (years)

<21

21-30

1.01

0.84; 1.22

0.890

1.51

1.01; 2.24

0.043*

0.68

0.32; 1.44

0.309

1.04

0.91; 1.20

0.536

1.07

0.97; 1.19

0.180

31-40

0.97

0.85; 1.10

0.620

1.07

0.86; 1.34

0.543

0.91

0.62; 1.33

0.626

1.13

1.02; 1.26

0.020*

1.04

0.96; 1.12

0.309

41-50

0.98

0.82; 1.16

0.798

0.85

0.65; 1.11

0.237

0.37

0.21; 0.68

0.001*

0.98

0.86; 1.11

0.737

0.96

0.87; 1.05

0.360

51-60

1.15

0.90; 1.49

0.267

0.41

0.17; 0.99

0.048*

1.33

0.77; 2.30

0.306

0.77

0.64; 0.93

0.007*

0.94

0.82; 1.08

0.372

>60

0.48

0.24; 0.97

0.040*

0.91

0.47; 1.75

0.778

1.05

0.48; 2.34

0.896

0.79

0.59; 1.06

0.113

0.82

0.66; 1.04

0.101

Partner鈥檚 education

No education

Primary

1.47

1.12; 1.93

0.006*

1.13

0.85; 1.50

0.411

0.99

0.58; 1.69

0.969

1.54

1.34; 1.77

<0.001**

1.59

1.37; 1.85

<0.001**

Secondary or higher

1.28

1.03; 1.58

0.024*

1.01

0.68; 1.48

0.973

0.52

0.31; 0.88

0.015*

1.14

1.02; 1.28

0.025*

1.22

1.04; 1.42

0.012*

Partner is working

No

Yes

0.55

0.38; 0.79

0.001*

0.52

0.24; 1.11

0.089

1.90

0.95; 3.78

0.069

0.66

0.45; 0.96

0.029*

0.75

0.59; 0.95

0.019*

Partner drinks alcohol

Never

Often

2.52

1.78; 3.58

<0.001**

1.65

1.25; 2.19

<0.001**

0.38

0.10; 1.53

0.173

3.71

2.97; 4.64

<0.001**

3.86

3.20; 4.66

<0.001**

Sometimes

1.46

1.05; 2.04

0.025*

1.17

0.92; 1.50

0.202

0.39

0.10; 1.51

0.173

1.51

1.21; 1.89

<0.001**

1.28

1.07; 1.55

0.008*

Number of living children

1.18

1.14; 1.22

<0.001**

1.09

1.03; 1.15

0.005*

1.07

0.96; 1.20

0.213

1.13

1.10; 1.16

<0.001**

1.15

1.13; 1.18

<0.001**

Women鈥檚 father abused her mother

No

Yes

3.69

3.23; 4.21

<0.001**

2.17

1.79; 2.61

<0.001**

3.07

2.19; 4.31

<0.001**

2.17

1.98; 2.38

<0.001**

2.71

2.53; 2.90

<0.001**

Afraid of partner

Never

Most of the time

7.63

6.08; 9.59

<0.001**

3.70

2.87; 4.78

<0.001**

14.09

9.12; 21.78

<0.001**

7.39

6.54; 8.36

<0.001**

6.50

5.93; 7.14

<0.001**

Sometimes

1.86

1.47; 2.34

<0.001**

1.05

0.85; 1.29

0.644

2.29

1.50; 3.48

<0.001**

2.52

2.23; 2.86

<0.001**

1.85

1.69; 2.04

<0.001**

Community/societal characteristics

Place of residence

Urban

Rural

1.20

1.00; 1.43

0.044*

0.64

0.52; 0.80

<0.001**

1.52

1.06; 2.18

0.021*

1.05

0.94; 1.18

0.393

1.27

1.01; 1.61

0.043*

Wealth index

Poorer or Poorest

Middle

1.11

0.78; 1.60

0.553

1.00

0.79; 1.25

0.970

1.01

0.66; 1.53

0.979

0.86

0.76; 0.96

0.008*

0.89

0.82; 0.97

0.009*

Richer or Richest

1.73

1.16; 2.57

0.007*

0.64

0.49; 0.82

<0.001**

1.24

0.79; 1.94

0.353

0.80

0.70; 0.91

<0.001**

1.22

1.05; 1.43

0.011*

Decision making

Woman alone

Woman and partner

0.80

0.66; 0.97

0.024*

0.72

0.57; 0.93

0.011*

0.80

0.49; 1.31

0.375

0.73

0.63; 0.84

<0.001**

0.82

0.72; 0.93

0.003*

Partner alone

1.48

1.20; 1.83

<0.001**

0.71

0.50; 1.01

0.059

0.89

0.51; 1.58

0.699

0.86

0.74; 1.00

0.043*

1.22

1.05; 1.41

0.009*

Controlling behavior: Partner...

jealous if respondent talks with other men/women

4.23

3.64; 4.90

<0.001**

3.04

2.48; 3.73

<0.001**

2.38

1.63; 3.50

<0.001**

2.99

2.69; 3.32

<0.001**

3.52

3.25; 3.80

<0.001**

accuses respondent of unfaithfulness

4.20

3.66; 4.83

<0.001**

3.78

3.13; 4.56

<0.001**

3.93

2.59; 5.96

<0.001**

3.13

2.85; 3.43

<0.001**

3.67

3.42; 3.94

<0.001**

does not permit respondent to meet female/male friends

2.68

2.34; 3.07

<0.001**

3.29

2.73; 3.96

<0.001**

3.20

2.19; 4.69

<0.001**

2.86

2.60; 3.14

<0.001**

2.90

2.71; 3.11

<0.001**

tries to limit respondent鈥檚 contact with family

3.38

2.94; 3.89

<0.001**

3.19

2.61; 3.90

<0.001**

4.14

2.89; 5.93

<0.001**

3.15

2.84; 3.48

<0.001**

3.30

3.06; 3.56

<0.001**

insists on knowing where respondent is

3.44

3.02; 3.93

<0.001**

2.59

2.14; 3.15

<0.001**

2.53

1.85; 3.46

<0.001**

2.54

2.31; 2.79

<0.001**

2.94

2.75; 3.15

<0.001**

Wife beating justified if wife

goes out without telling husband

0.91

0.75; 1.10

0.349

0.66

0.37; 1.19

0.170

0.99

0.57; 1.72

0.971

0.86

0.74; 1.00

0.044*

0.93

0.87; 0.99

0.015*

neglects the children

0.86

0.65; 1.12

0.254

0.85

0.50; 1.44

0.533

0.64

0.38; 1.10

0.106

0.86

0.74; 0.99

0.039*

0.93

0.87; 0.98

0.011*

argues with husband

0.74

0.56; 0.98

0.033*

0.57

0.28; 1.16

0.121

0.51

0.28; 0.92

0.025*

0.84

0.72; 0.98

0.022*

0.90

0.84; 0.96

0.002*

refuses to have sex with husband

0.87

0.64; 1.18

0.365

0.63

0.41; 0.97

0.036*

0.54

0.29; 1.01

0.054

0.79

0.68; 0.92

0.002*

0.99

0.83; 1.17

0.869

burns the food

0.77

0.58; 1.03

0.083

0.54

0.25; 1.18

0.122

0.32

0.15; 0.70

0.004*

0.89

0.82; 0.98

0.014*

0.89

0.82; 0.96

0.002*

Health-seeking barriers (Following is a 鈥渂ig problem鈥)

getting permission to go

2.47

2.03; 3.00

<0.001**

1.70

1.23; 2.35

0.001*

1.75

1.12; 2.73

0.015*

0.82

0.69; 0.99

0.038*

2.29

1.97; 2.65

<0.001**

getting money needed for treatment

2.38

1.89; 3.00

<0.001**

3.23

2.06; 5.06

<0.001**

1.26

0.87; 1.84

0.223

1.25

1.13; 1.38

<0.001**

2.83

2.32; 3.46

<0.001**

distance to health care facility

2.47

1.91; 3.20

<0.001**

1.44

1.04; 2.02

0.031*

1.56

1.09; 2.22

0.015*

0.97

0.88; 1.06

0.471

2.25

1.86; 2.73

<0.001**

not wanting to go alone

2.40

1.93; 2.98

<0.001**

1.80

1.32; 2.47

<0.001**

1.93

1.39; 2.69

<0.001**

1.00

0.89; 1.11

0.936

2.35

1.99; 2.77

<0.001**

Sample size

2,556

1,856

610

4,050

9,072

  1. aOR, adjusted Odds Ratio. 95% CI, 95% Confidence Interval. All results are weighted. a For Peru, only unweighted data was available, hence Peru鈥檚 data is excluded from regional and total weighted estimates. * p-value < 0.05. ** p-value < 0.001.
  2. ORs were adjusted for women鈥檚 age, women鈥檚 age at first cohabitation, women鈥檚 education, women鈥檚 working status, women鈥檚 marital status, number of living children, partner鈥檚 education and working status, whether her partner drank alcohol, whether her father abused her mother, woman afraid of partner, wealth index and rural/urban residence