Abstract

Background

In this study, the effects of university students鈥� sociodemographic characteristics and their thoughts on marriage on their attitudes towards marriage and gender roles were discussed.

Methods

A cross-sectional descriptive study was designed, involving a sample of 1082 university students. The data for this study were collected using a socio-demographic questionnaire, the In枚n眉 Marital Attitude Scale (IMAS), and the Gender Roles Attitude Scale (GRAS). The data were analyzed with descriptive statistics, Kruskal Wallis Test, and Pearson Correlation analysis.

Results

The mean age of the participants was 20.53鈥壜扁��1.96 years, 67.9% were female and 32.1% were male. The participants鈥� mean GRAS total score was 144.93鈥壜扁��26.62, and the mean IMAS score was 71.80鈥壜扁��16.42. Significant gender-based differences were observed in IMAS and GRAS total/subscale scores (p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001). Furthermore, societal gender roles were found to be significantly correlated with participants鈥� income, views on the distribution of authority between spouses, and opinions on domestic violence. A significant positive correlation was observed between students鈥� IMAS total scores and GRAS egalitarian gender role subscale scores (r鈥�=鈥�0.108, p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001). Moreover, IMAS total scores were found to be significantly negatively correlated with GRAS total and female gender role, gender role in marriage, traditional gender role, and male gender role subscale scores (r=-0.252, p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001).

Conclusions

The participating students鈥� gender role total scores were found to be very high. Accordingly, as parents of the future, young people are the group that needs to be prioritized, and it is essential to promote their positive attitudes towards marriage and gender equality.

Introduction

The concept of family is the most fundamental building block of society and is an important value that best reflects society. The family is a crucial environment where a child is raised, grows up, takes the first steps towards participating in life as a member of society, and shapes his/her future. Marriage has an incontrovertible value and importance in the formation of the family structure. The transfer of social, cultural, and religious values related to society to future generations can only be ensured through healthy family dynamics and marriage [1]. Family is the smallest building block of society and a structure that best reflects the values and normative rules of society [2].

The concept of gender refers to the identification of one as male or female, determined by physiological, biological characteristics, and genetic traits [3]. This distinction should be regarded as a difference in terms of gender, rather than as inequality [4]. Gender is a biological concept that signifies the distinction between individuals as either female or male. In social terms, the concept of gender refers to the socially determined personality traits, roles, and responsibilities assigned to women and men within their respective societies. It also includes the status of women and men in society, as well as society鈥檚 perceptions of individuals and associated expectations. Men and women鈥檚 roles according to gender are classified as traditional and egalitarian roles. Roles attributed to women in traditional roles consist of non- egalitarian accountabilities such as being responsible for domestic affairs and not being active in professional life. Roles attributed to men in traditional roles consist of accountabilities such as being the head of the house and also responsible for breadwinning. Egalitarian roles, however, are equal sharing of accountabilities in family, professional, social and educational life [5, 6].

Social gender is influenced by the culture of the society in which individuals live [7, 8]. The concept of societal gender varies across societies. While certain behaviors are deemed appropriate for men, others are desired and expected of women; the social values and expectations are important in this differentiation [9]. However, gender roles are shaped within a multi-layered system. In this system, male individuals are taught, especially by their fathers, to stay away from harsh, aggressive and weak emotions. When the same boy becomes an adult, he may have difficulty expressing his feelings because he sees the difficulties and problems he experiences in his romantic relationships as a sign of weakness [10,11,12].

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that all women and men have equal rights to life, health, education, and work without discrimination [13]. It has been stated that there is no room for inequality concerning the rights outlined in the Declaration of Human Rights. However, patterns of inequality between the male and female genders are sometimes noticeable particularly in working life, social life, as well as family and marital life. This model of inequality in this field sometimes impedes and hinders women, in particular, from advancing their social status. This not only negatively affects women鈥檚 social status, but also their perception of health and quality of life. As a result of this model of inequality, women have been compelled to lag behind men in numerous areas and a gender disparity has arisen. However, as women鈥檚 education levels rise, their participation in the workforce increases, and in turn leads to a shift in traditional gender roles in favor of women [4].

As the backbone of society, the attitudes of young people toward marriage and gender inequality are very important. Their negative attitudes in this regard can erode moral values, negatively impact health and the economy, and ultimately contribute to the deterioration of social and cultural structures [14]. Determining the marriage and gender roles attitudes of university youth, who are guardians and heirs of cultural values, is essential for preventing social fracture [1].

Society鈥檚 approach to marriage and its relationship with gender is a subject that has been examined by researchers at various times. In this context, Sassler and Schoen (1999) determined in a study that adherence to traditional gender roles, uncertainty and disagreements about women鈥檚 position in the home negatively affect women鈥檚 attitudes towards marriage. However, it was determined that men who strongly adhere to traditional gender roles are much more likely to marry [15]. Another study by Barber and Axinn found that gender roles play a determining role in women鈥檚 marital attitudes and that gender role attitudes have a very strong effect on marriage in early adulthood [16]. As the years passed, women became more involved in education and business life, which led to changes in their attitudes towards marriage. A study conducted in 2013 revealed that women first focused on their careers and then took the initiative to get married [17]. When we look at the studies conducted in our country, it is seen that university students have a more positive view on marriage and family life and have a traditional view on issues such as family life and relationships [18].

Accordingly, this study aims at examining the relationship between gender roles and marriage attitudes of university students, who are future health professionals and expected to serve as role models for society through their lifestyle.

Research hypotheses

• - There is a positive relationship between gender roles and sub-dimensions of university students and their marital attitudes.

• - The determined sociodemographic characteristics of university students significantly affect their marital attitudes.

• - The determined sociodemographic characteristics of university students and their gender roles significantly affect them.

Materials and methods

A cross-sectional descriptive study was designed.

The population of this study consisted of students attending YYY University Vocational School of Health Services and XXX University Health Services Vocational School during the 2021鈥�2022 academic year. Sampling was not performed with the aim of reaching the entire population. A total of 1082 university students participated. Data were collected by researchers through face-to-face interviews with participants.

In this study, participants鈥� sociodemographic characteristics and thoughts about marriage constituted independent variables, while gender role attitudes and marriage attitudes constituted dependent variables.

Data collection tools

The data for this study were collected using a socio-demographic questionnaire prepared by the researchers (16 items), the In枚n眉 Marital Attitude Scale (21 items), and the Gender Roles Attitude Scale (38 items). The socio-demographic questionnaire included a total of 16 questions, with 6 questions measuring the participants鈥� characteristics and 10 questions measuring attitudes towards marriage and gender roles.

In枚n眉 Marital attitude scale (IMAS)

The scale was developed to determine the attitudes of young adults towards marriage. The validity and reliability of the scale were examined by Bayao臒lu and Atl谋 [19]. The scale consisted of 21 items rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale; Strongly disagree [1], Seldom agree [2], Somewhat agree [3], Agree [4], and Strongly agree [5]. Higher scores indicate more positive attitudes toward marriage, whereas lower scores indicate negative attitudes toward marriage. The scale does not have a cutoff value [19]. The reliability values of the scale were found between 0.87 and 0.90.

Gender Roles Attitude Scale (GRAS): The scale was developed to measure the attitudes of young adults toward societal gender roles by Zeynelo臒lu [20]. The scales consisted of 38 items rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Participants鈥� responses were scored as follows: 鈥楽trongly disagree鈥� as one point, 鈥楧isagree鈥� as two, 鈥楿ndecided鈥� as three, 鈥楢gree鈥� as four, and 鈥楽trongly agree鈥� as five points. Twelve items were scored directly, while the remaining 26 items were reverse-scored. The highest and lowest scores that can be obtained from the scale were 190 and 38, respectively. The scale included five gender roles namely, egalitarian gender role, female gender role, gender role in marriage, traditional gender role, and male gender role. A scale score of 95 or above indicates that the participant has egalitarian attitudes towards gender roles. On the other hand, a score below 95 suggests that the participant has traditional attitudes towards gender roles. Cronbach 伪 internal consistency coefficients for the sub-dimensions of the scale are 0.80 for the female gender role, 0.78 for the egalitarian gender role, marital gender role and traditional gender role, and 0.72 for the male gender role.

Statistical analysis

The R program ver. 2.15.3 (R Core Team, 2013) was employed for statistical analyses. The study data were reported using measures such as minimum, maximum, mean, standard deviation, median, first quartile, third quartile, frequency, and percentage. The conformity of quantitative data to a normal distribution was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test and graphical analysis. Independent samples t-test was conducted to evaluate variables with a normal distribution between two groups. For normally distributed variables between more than two groups, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. On the other hand, the Kruskal-Wallis test was performed for non-normally distributed variables between more than two groups. Cronbach鈥檚 alpha coefficient was considered to assess the internal consistency, and statistical significance was considered when p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.05.

Results

The sociodemographic findings of the participants are shown in Table听1. The mean age of the participants was 20.53鈥壜扁��1.96 years, 67.9% were female and 32.1% were male. The participants鈥� mean GRAS total score was 144.93鈥壜扁��26.62, and the mean IMAS score was 71.80鈥壜扁��16.42.

Table 1 Participants鈥� sociodemographic characteristics and mean scale scores

The students stated that the ideal age of marriage was 24.67鈥壜扁��2.27 years for women and 26.80鈥壜扁��2.55 years for men. Of the students, 68.7% believe that couples should decide on marriage together, while 30.9% believe that decisions about marriage should involve both families and couples. Furthermore, 73% of the participants reported becoming disenchanted with marriage upon witnessing violence between couples. The students鈥� opinions on marriage are shown in Table听2.

Table 2 Participants鈥� thoughts on marriage

Table听3 presents the comparison of students鈥� mean GRAS total, GRAS subscale, and IMAS total scores with independent variables. No significant relationship was found between age and GRAS Egalitarian, Female, Traditional, and Male gender role subscale scores, GRAS total scores, and IMAS total scores (p鈥�>鈥�0.05). Positive correlations were observed between respondents鈥� ideal age of marriage for women and GRAS Egalitarian gender role (r鈥�=鈥�0.263, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Female gender role (r鈥�=鈥�0.323, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Gender role in marriage (r鈥�=鈥�0.182, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Traditional gender role (r鈥�=鈥�0.241, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Male gender role (r鈥�=鈥�0.236, p鈥�<鈥�0.001) sub-scale and total scale scores (r鈥�=鈥�0.302, p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001). On the contrary, a negative significant relationship was identified between respondents鈥� ideal age of marriage for women and IMAS total scores (r=-0.225, p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001). Similarly, positive relationships were determined between respondents鈥� ideal age of marriage for men and GRAS Egalitarian gender role (r鈥�=鈥�0.246, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Female gender role (r鈥�=鈥�0.337, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Gender role in marriage (r鈥�=鈥�0.202, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Traditional gender role (r鈥�=鈥�0.284, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Male gender role (r鈥�=鈥�0.244, p鈥�<鈥�0.001) sub-scale and total scale scores (r鈥�=鈥�0.319, p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001). A negative significant correlation was determined between respondents鈥� ideal age of marriage for men and IMAS total scores (r=-0.271, p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001).

Table 3 Comparison of the mean GRAS total, GRAS subscale, and IMAS total scores with independent variables

Statistically significant gender-based differences were found in the GRAS total, GRAS subscale, and IMAS total scores (p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001). Women exhibited higher scores on the GRAS subscale and total scores, whereas their IMAS total score was lower compared to men.

The correlation between the participants鈥� total and sub-dimension scores of gender roles and their marital attitudes is shown in Table听4. There was a statistically significant positive correlation between participants鈥� IMAS total scores and GRAS Egalitarian gender role (r鈥�=鈥�0.108, p鈥�<鈥�0.001) subscale scores. On the other hand, IMAS total scores were found to be negatively correlated with Female gender role (r=-0.276, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Gender role in marriage (r=-0.206, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Traditional gender role (r=-0.398, p鈥�<鈥�0.001), Male gender role (r=-0.259, p鈥�<鈥�0.001) subscale and total scale (r=-0.252, p鈥�<鈥�0.001) scores (Table听4).

Table 4 Correlations between participants鈥� attitudes toward gender roles and attitudes toward marriage

Discussion

When the subscale scores were examined according to gender in the study, it was seen that the total gender role scores and all subscale scores of female students were higher than those of male students and the difference was statistically significant (p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001). The highest score obtained from the GRAS scale (40 points) indicates that the student has a 鈥渕odern鈥� attitude towards gender roles, while the lowest score (8 points) indicates that the student has a 鈥渢raditional鈥� attitude towards gender roles [20]. K枚k et al. found that female students had more egalitarian attitudes than male students [21]. The same study reported significant gender-based differences in the egalitarian, gender role in marriage, traditional, and male gender role scores. Our results are consistent with the literature findings. Bayezit reported that women had higher egalitarian gender role scores than men, with a mean GRAS total score of 137.89鈥壜扁��17.41 [22]. In a study by Akg眉l involving gender Z, the mean GRAS total score was found to be 164.21鈥壜扁��23.13 [23]. Furthermore, in a study by Koca involving university students, the mean egalitarian, gender role, and GRAS total scores were reported to be 35.79鈥壜扁��4.20 and 151.04鈥壜扁��21.34 [24]. The results obtained from the research show that the participants鈥� GRAS total and subscale score distributions are similar to the literature.

Kerkez et al. found a significant gender-based difference in the total Gender Role Scale scores of students (p鈥�<鈥�0.05) [25]. We found that female students had higher egalitarian and traditional attitudes than male students (p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001). Previous studies also reported similar findings, women mostly support egalitarian gender role more than men [26, 27]. Based on the findings, it can be argued that participants generally adopted modern/egalitarian attitudes toward gender roles.

Examination of the GRAS scale scores based on the universities where the study was conducted revealed that students studying in Amasya had statistically significant higher GRAS total and subscale scores compared to those studying in Yozgat (p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001). These differences between the scale scores can be attributed to cultural and economic differences in the places where students grow up, live, and study. Amasya鈥檚 historical and cultural heritage bears the traces of a rich and deep past. With this structure, hosting many local and foreign tourists contributes to increasing the socio-cultural levels of individuals living in that region. In this context, it is also an expected result that students studying in Amasya will have a more egalitarian attitude. In addition, this difference can also show the meanings that families give to the concept of gender in different cultures. Social Identity Theory, which is frequently emphasized in the literature to understand the gender culture created by the family, reveals how individuals play these gender roles. In this theory put forward by Tajfel and Turner, individuals define and evaluate themselves by taking into account the social group they are a member of [28]. As a result of this evaluation, they classify themselves and as a result of this classification, they identify with the group they place themselves in. As a result of this identification, their social identities are formed. The fact that students belong to different cultures, the geography they live in and the groups they belong to are the main determinants in the emergence of sexist approaches [29, 30].

Examination of the GRAS scale scores based on the income of the participants indicated that students with very low income had significantly lower GRAS total and subscale scores (p鈥�&濒迟;鈥�0.001). Furthermore, the GRAS scale scores were evaluated based on the marital status of parents. Accordingly, participants whose parents were married had higher egalitarian gender role scores, whereas those whose parents were divorced had higher GRAS total and female gender role, gender role in marriage, traditional gender role, and male gender role subscale scores.

Of the students, 68.7% believe that marriage should be decided by the couples and 73% stated that they become disenchanted with marriage when they hear news about violence between couples. Akba艧 et al. reported that 74.6% of women considered the ideal marriage age to be 24 years and above, while 77% of men reported it to be 25鈥�29 years [1]. Among the students, 95.2% stated that they themselves should decide whom to marry, 68.5% commented that the decision to marry was most influenced by having economic freedom, and 59.9% stated that they were not afraid of marriage.

In this study, the mean In枚n眉 Marital Attitude Scale score of the students was found to be 71.80鈥壜扁��16.42 with a distribution interval of 21鈥�105 (72). Akba艧 et al. reported the mean In枚n眉 Marital Attitude Scale score of the students as 77.85鈥壜扁��15.403, with a distribution interval of 22鈥�105 [1]. In a study by F谋艧k谋n and Sar谋 involving a sample of 820 students, attitudes towards marriage were found to be positive with a mean scale score of 73.31鈥壜扁��18.32 [31].

The mean In枚n眉 Marital Attitude Scale score of the male students was found to be significantly higher than those of female students. In the study of F谋艧k谋n and Sar谋 involving a sample of college students from a different university, the marriage attitude scores of male and female students were found to be 76.44鈥壜扁��17.27 and 72.17鈥壜扁��18.57, respectively [31]. The increased socioeconomic interdependency of women, their development in socio-cultural aspects, and their active participation in working life may contribute to more negative attitudes of women towards marriage compared to men. Another reason why women have more negative attitudes towards marriage may be that men do not seek support due to the possibility of being stigmatized for seeking help in cases of problems that arise in marriage due to their masculine gender role [32]. Traditional masculine norms force men to correct themselves without the help of others and to suppress the expression of their emotions [33]. On the other hand, women鈥檚 constant role as constructors, taking on problems on their own, receiving psychological support and being alone when necessary negatively affects women鈥檚 attitudes towards marriage.

Examination of the students鈥� IMAS scores based on the marital status of parents revealed that students whose parents were separated had higher scores than those whose parents were married or divorced. Akba艧 et al. reported similar results, with higher mean IMAS scores among students with parents who had religious and civil marriages; however, this difference was found to be not statistically significant [1].

Furthermore, in a study conducted by Cuthbert and Amadu (2014) to examine college students鈥� attitudes toward marriage and building a family, students were found to have no positive thoughts about marriage. However, the authors stated that among students with positive attitudes towards marriage, certain factors such as education and ethnicity affect their thoughts about marriage [34]. A previous study involving a sample of 325 college students reported that students had positive attitudes towards marriage but marriage decisions are influenced by current family dynamics [35]. Moreover, a survey of Iranian youth found that although the majority had positive views on marriage, marriage rates among young people were found to be declining [36]. In our study involving youth, although some participants stated that they were disenchanted with marriage, the marital attitude scores of those who believed that having children reduces marital problems and positively affects marriage were found to be higher. A literature survey revealed that studies conducted in countries with different sociocultural backgrounds reported results differing from ours. In a study involving 7 European countries, having children was found to have no effect on marriage attitudes [37].

Regarding the distribution of authority between spouses, the marital attitude scores of the students who believed that the male should have the authority were higher, and this difference was statistically significant. Based on these findings, it is considered that young individuals in our sample have more traditional attitudes towards marriage. Previous studies examining Turkish culture and marriage attitudes also reported similar results [31].

Examination of students鈥� IMAS scores based on the marriage types of their parents indicated that the mean scores of students whose parents met themselves and agreed to marry or eloped were higher than those whose parents had an arranged marriage; however, this difference was not statistically significant. Students whose parents had an arranged marriage exhibited lower marital attitude scores than other students.

Statistically significant differences were observed in the students鈥� marital attitude scores according to their romantic relationship status (p鈥�<鈥�0,001). Students who do not have a romantic relationship exhibited lower marital attitude scores compared to those who are married or in a romantic relationship.

A significant positive correlation was observed between students鈥� IMAS total scores and GRAS egalitarian gender role scores. In the study by Yal莽谋n et al. involving 307 university students, similar findings were reported. They identified a significant positive correlation between students鈥� attitudes toward marriage and egalitarian gender roles (r鈥�=鈥�0.12 and p鈥�<鈥�0.05) [38]. In addition, in the study conducted by Akp谋nar and K谋rl谋o臒lu with individuals working in various public institutions such as universities, courthouses, and social service organizations, it was determined that attitudes towards gender roles significantly predicted marital adjustment (F鈥�=鈥�2,712; p鈥�<鈥�0,05). However, they found that the change in the division of labor in marriages from egalitarian to traditional caused a decrease in the marital happiness of female spouses [39]. Another study found that the lack of an egalitarian attitude by one of the spouses significantly reduces the quality of marriage [40].

Conclusion

Although separate studies have been conducted on marriage attitudes and gender roles with university students in Turkey, this study is quite important in terms of considering these two variables together. The effect of our gender roles, which are shaped by the geography we live in and the cultural values 鈥嬧�媤e have, on marriage attitudes and their relationship with sociodemographic variables are revealed in this study. In addition, revealing the attitudes of this group, which will be employed in the health sector that serves all segments of society, towards marriage and gender roles constitutes another important aspect of the study.

This study examined young individuals鈥� attitudes toward marriage and societal gender roles based on certain sociodemographic variables. The participating students exhibited very high total gender role scores. However, students鈥� views on marriage attitudes are similar to those in the literature. Furthermore, women supported egalitarian gender roles more than men. Literature findings suggest that in order to change the traditional perspective on gender roles and provide young people with an egalitarian perspective, it is necessary to identify their attitudes towards gender roles. Nevertheless, young individuals were found to have high marital attitude scores and they鈥檙e open to marriage. Participants鈥� opinions on marriage, distribution of authority between spouses, and domestic violence indicated that they are more inclined to the traditional view. In this regard, as parents of the future, young people are the group that needs to be prioritized, and it is essential to address their negative social prejudices and traditional taboos regarding marriage and gender equality. Due to the time and cost constraints, the study was conducted only with students from the health department of two different universities. Therefore, to generalize the findings to the entire society, new studies should be conducted with larger sample groups in different regions. Additionally, addressing other demographic characteristics in these studies will contribute to a more detailed understanding of the topic.

Limitations

This study has several limitations. First, the cross-sectional nature of the study precludes any claim of causality. Secondly, the data were collected in only two universities in the Black Sea region of Turkey and may not allow generalization of the results to all university students in Turkey. Therefore, a longitudinal study on university students鈥� marriage attitudes, gender roles, and related factors is encouraged.