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Table 2 Evidence for moderation by sex in risk factors for stunting

From: Are boys more vulnerable to stunting? Examining risk factors, differential sensitivity, and measurement issues in Zambian infants and young children

Ìý

Pooled Samplea

OR (95% CI)

p value

Evidence for moderation by sex?b

p value

Maternal characteristics

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

Maternal stunting

2.25 (1.94, 2.60)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

No

Ìý

Adolescent mother

1.30 (1.11, 1.52)

0.001*

No

Ìý

Maternal education

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

 N´Ç²Ô±ð

Ref

Ìý

No

Ìý

 P°ù±ð²õ³¦³ó´Ç´Ç±ô

1.20 (0.78, 1.84)

0.40

ÌýÌý

 P°ù¾±³¾²¹°ù²â

0.94 (0.78, 1.14)

0.53

ÌýÌý

 Secondary (junior/senior)

0.65 (0.53, 0.80)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

ÌýÌý

‽ö¾±²µ³ó±ð°ù

0.29 (0.20, 0.42)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

ÌýÌý

Marital status

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

â€ÇȾ±²Ô²µ±ô±ð

Ref

Ìý

Yes

Ìý

 Married/Cohabitating (monogamous

0.88 (0.75, 1.02)

0.10

Ìý

0.04

 Married (polygynous)

1.19 (0.92, 1.52)

0.18

Ìý

0.14

 W¾±»å´Ç·É±ð»å/³§±ð±è²¹°ù²¹³Ù±ð»å/¶Ù¾±±¹´Ç°ù³¦±ð»å

0.98 (0.79, 1.22)

0.86

Ìý

0.02

Maternal diet quality

0.84 (0.75, 0.95)

0.004

No

Ìý

Perception of child appetite

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

 Less compared to average

1.01 (0.85, 1.20)

0.88

Yes

0.08

 More compared to average

1.03 (0.88, 1.20)

0.73

ÌýÌý

Knowledge about infant feeding

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

 SBCC – Exclusive breastfeeding

0.86 (0.77, 0.96)

0.008

No

Ìý

 SBCC – Complementary feeding

0.83 (0.72, 0.96)

0.01

No

Ìý

 SBCC – Feeding when sick

0.92 (0.82, 1.03)

0.15

No

Ìý

Child characteristics

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

Low birth weight, < 2500 gm

1.89 (1.67, 2.14)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

No

Ìý

Diarrhea

1.07 (0.96, 1.20)

0.22

No

Ìý

Deworming treatment

0.43 (0.83, 1.07)

0.36

No

Ìý

Vit A supplementation

0.85 (0.76, 0.96)

0.007

No

Ìý

Diet qualityc

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

 Minimum diet diversity

0.76 (0.66, 0.88)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

No

Ìý

 Minimum meal frequency

0.97 (0.85, 1.10)

0.63

No

Ìý

 Minimum acceptable diet

0.83 (0.73, 0.94)

0.04

No

Ìý

Iron rich foods

0.84 (0.69, 0.99)

0.01

No

Ìý

Prelacteal feeding

1.58 (0.87, 2.90)

0.14

No

Ìý

Gripe water

0.67 (0.58, 0.78)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

Yes

0.09

Exclusive Breastfeeding (among those under 6mo)

1.13 (0.85, 1.50)

0.39

Yes

0.09

Any BF at 12 mo

1.21 (0.79, 1.85)

0.39

No

Ìý

Early intro of NBMS (< 6mo)

1.01 (0.88, 1.16)

0.85

No

Ìý

Household characteristics

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

Household size

1.00 (0.98, 1.02)

0.73

No

Ìý

Household economic activity

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

 N´Ç²Ô±ð

Ref

Ìý

No

Ìý

 F²¹°ù³¾±ð°ù

1.14 (0.88, 1.49)

0.33

ÌýÌý

 Informal employment

0.95 (0.73, 1.24)

0.70

ÌýÌý

 Formal employment

0.59 (0.44, 0.79)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

ÌýÌý

Food insecurity

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

â€Çȱ𳦳ܰù±ð

Ref

Ìý

No

Ìý

  Mild

0.93 (0.73, 1.19)

0.58

ÌýÌý

 M´Ç»å±ð°ù²¹³Ù±ð

1.39 (1.18, 1.65)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

ÌýÌý

â€Çȱ𱹱ð°ù±ð

1.67 (1.41, 1.98)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

ÌýÌý

Household resilience

0.78 (0.69, 0.89)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

No

Ìý

Rural residence

1.57 (1.33, 1.87)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

No

Ìý

Improved sanitation

ÌýÌýÌýÌý

 Access to Drinking Water

0.81 (0.62, 1.06)

0.13

No

Ìý

 Access to Safe Toilets

0.91 (0.76, 1.09)

0.33

No

Ìý

Essential hygiene practices

0.48 (0.36, 0.64)

&±ô³Ù; 0.001*

No

Ìý

Safe food handling

0.80 (0.65, 0.99)

0.05

No

Ìý

Exposure to animals/animal feces in play area

0.99 (0.87, 1.13)

0.87

No

Ìý
  1. Models minimally adjusted for child age and clustering by enumeration area and district. aResults
  2. from logistic regression models that include child sex as a main effect. bEvidence for sex differences
  3. based on the significance of an added interaction term between the exposure and child sex. cdefined
  4. for children over 6 months using WHO IYCF guidelines [32]; *variables that remain significant after Bonferroni correction